Adjectives and Nouns

Adjectives and Nouns

We have seen that attributive adjectives occur before a noun which they modify, for example, red in red car. We need to distinguish these clearly from nouns which occur in the same position, and fulfil the same syntactic function. Consider the following:    rally car   saloon car   family car  Here, the first word modifies the second, that is, it tells us something further about the car. For example, a rally car is a car which is driven in rallies. These modifiers occur in the same position as red in the example above, but they are not adjectives. We can show this by applying our criteria for the adjective class. Firstly, they do not take very:    *a very rally car   *a very saloon car   *a very family car  Secondly, they do not have comparative or superlative forms:    *rallier *ralliest / *more rally / *most rally   *salooner *saloonest / *more saloon / *most saloon   *familier *familiest / *more family / *most family    And finally, they cannot occur in predicative position:    *the car is rally   *the car is saloon   *the car is family  So although these words occupy the typical adjective position, they are not adjectives. They are nouns. However, certain adjectives are derived from nouns, and are known as DENOMINAL adjectives. Examples include:     a mathematical puzzle [`a puzzle based on mathematics']   a biological experiment [`an experiment in biology']   a wooden boat [`a boat made of wood']    Denominals include adjectives which refer to nationality:    a Russian lady [`a lady who comes from Russia']   German goods [`goods produced in Germany']    Denominal adjectives of this type should be carefully distinguished from nominal adjectives denoting nationalities. Compare:     Nominal Adjective: The French are noted for their wines   Denominal Adjective: The French people are noted for their wines

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Nominal Adjectives

Nominal Adjectives

Certain adjectives are used to denote a class by describing one of the attributes of the class. For example, the poor denotes a class of people who share a similar financial status. Other nominal adjectives are:   the old   the sick   the wealthy the blind   the innocent  A major subclass of nominal adjectives refers to nationalities:     the French   the British   the Japanese  However, not all nationalities have corresponding nominal adjectives. Many of them are denoted by plural, proper nouns:    the Germans   the Russians   the Americans   the Poles    Nominal adjectives do not refer exclusively to classes of people. Indeed some of them do not denote classes at all:     the opposite   the contrary   the good  Comparative and superlative forms can also be nominal adjectives:    the best is yet to come   the elder of the two   the greatest of these   the most important among them  We refer to all of these types as nominal adjectives because they share some of the characteristics of nouns (hence `nominal') and some of the characteristics of adjectives. They have the following nominal characteristics:  they are preceded by a determiner (usually the definite article the)  they can be modified by adjectives (the gallant French, the unfortunate poor)  They have the following adjectival features:    they are gradable (the very old, the extremely wealthy)  many can take comparative and superlative forms (the poorer, the poorest)

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Stative and Dynamic Adjectives

Stative and Dynamic Adjectives

As their name suggests, STATIVE adjectives denote a state or condition, which may generally be considered permanent, such as big,red, small. Stative adjectives cannot normally be used in imperative constructions:  
 

*Be big/red/small  

Further, they cannot normally be used in progressive constructions:  
 

*He is being big/red/small 

In contrast, DYNAMIC adjectives denote attributes which are, to some extent at least, under the control of the one who possesses them. For instance, brave denotes an attribute which may not always be in evidence (unlike red, for example), but which may be called upon as it is required. For this reason, it is appropriate to use it in an imperative:   
 

Be brave! 

Dynamic adjectives include: 
   

calm  careful  cruel  disruptive  foolish  friendly  good  impatient

mannerly  patient  rude  shy  suspicious  tidy  vacuous  vain

   
All dynamic adjectives can be used in imperatives (Be careful!, Don't be cruel!), and they can also be used predicatively in progressive constructions:   
 

Your son is being disruptive in class  
My parents are being foolish again  
We're being very patient with you 

The majority of adjectives are stative. The stative/dynamic contrast, as it relates to adjectives, is largely a semantic one, though as we have seen it also has syntactic implications.   
  

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Attributive and Predicative Adjectives

Attributive and Predicative Adjectives

Most adjectives can occur both before and after a noun:        the blue sea ~ the sea is blue the old man ~ the man is old happy children ~ the children are happy  Adjectives in the first position - before the noun - are called ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives. Those in the second position - after the noun - are called PREDICATIVE adjectives. Notice that predicative adjectives do not occur immediately after the noun. Instead, they follow a verb.   Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun, especially in certain institutionalised expressions:  the Governor General   the Princess Royal   times past  We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun:  something useful   everyone present   those responsible  Postpositive adjectives are commonly found together with superlative, attributive adjectives:  the shortest route possible   the worst conditions imaginable   the best hotel available  Most adjectives can freely occur in both the attributive and the predicative positions. However, a small number of adjectives are restricted to one position only. For example, the adjective main (themain reason) can only occur in the attributive position (predicative: *the reason is main). Conversely, the adjective afraid (the child wasafraid) can only occur predicatively (attributive: *an afraid child).

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Characteristics of Adjectives

Characteristics of Adjectives

Adjectives can take a modifying word, such as very, extremely, orless, before them:   
  

very cold weather   
extremely large windows   
less violent storms 

   
Here, the modifying word locates the adjective on a scale of comparison, at a position higher or lower than the one indicated by the adjective alone.  

This characteristic is known as GRADABILITY. Most adjectives are gradable, though if the adjective already denotes the highest position on a scale, then it is non-gradable:  

   

my main reason for coming	~*my very main reason for coming
the principal role in the play	~*the very principal role in the play

   
   
As well as taking modifying words like very and extremely,adjectives also take different forms to indicate their position on a scale of comparison:   
  
big     bigger     biggest

   
The lowest point on the scale is known as the ABSOLUTE form, the middle point is known as the COMPARATIVE form, and the highest point is known as the SUPERLATIVE form. Here are some more examples:  

   

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
dark	darker	darkest
new	newer	newest
old	older	oldest
young	younger	youngest

  

In most cases, the comparative is formed by adding -er , and the superlative is formed by adding -est, to the absolute form. However, a number of very common adjectives are irregular in this respect:   

 

Characteristics of Adjectives

Adjectives can take a modifying word, such as very, extremely, orless, before them:   
  

very cold weather   
extremely large windows   
less violent storms 

   
Here, the modifying word locates the adjective on a scale of comparison, at a position higher or lower than the one indicated by the adjective alone.  

This characteristic is known as GRADABILITY. Most adjectives are gradable, though if the adjective already denotes the highest position on a scale, then it is non-gradable:  

   

my main reason for coming	~*my very main reason for coming
the principal role in the play	~*the very principal role in the play

   
   
As well as taking modifying words like very and extremely,adjectives also take different forms to indicate their position on a scale of comparison:   
   big     bigger     biggest

   
The lowest point on the scale is known as the ABSOLUTE form, the middle point is known as the COMPARATIVE form, and the highest point is known as the SUPERLATIVE form. Here are some more examples:  

   

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
dark	darker	darkest
new	newer	newest
old	older	oldest
young	younger	youngest

  

In most cases, the comparative is formed by adding -er , and the superlative is formed by adding -est, to the absolute form. However, a number of very common adjectives are irregular in this respect:   

   

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
far	farther	farthest

  

Some adjectives form the comparative and superlative using moreand most respectively:  

   

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
important	more important	most important
miserable	more miserable	most miserable
recent	more recent	most recent

 

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
far	farther	farthest

  

Some adjectives form the comparative and superlative using moreand most respectively:  

   

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
important	more important	most important
miserable	more miserable	most miserable
recent	more recent	most recent

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Count and Non-count Nouns

Count and Non-count Nouns

Common nouns are either count or non-count. COUNT nouns can be "counted", as follows:       one pen, two pens, three pens, four pens...   NON-COUNT nouns, on the other hand, cannot be counted in this way:        one software, *two softwares, *three softwares, *four softwares...   From the point of view of grammar, this means that count nouns have singular as well as plural forms, whereas non-count nouns have only a singular form.    It also means that non-count nouns do not take a/an before them:     Count Non-count a pen  *a software    In general, non-count nouns are considered to refer to indivisible wholes. For this reason, they are sometimes called MASS nouns.   Some common nouns may be either count or non-count, depending on the kind of reference they have. For example, in I made a cake, cakeis a count noun, and the a before it indicates singular number. However, in I like cake, the reference is less specific. It refers to "cake in general", and so cake is non-count in this sentence.

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Common and Proper Nouns

Common and Proper Nouns

Nouns which name specific people or places are known as PROPER NOUNS.   
  

John  
Mary  
London  
France

Many names consist of more than one word:   
  

John Wesley  
Queen Mary  
South Africa  
Atlantic Ocean  
Buckingham Palace

Proper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar:   
  

 January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas, Thanksgiving

All other nouns are COMMON NOUNS.   

Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not normally take plurals. However, they may do so, especially when number is being specifically referred to:  
  

there are three Davids in my class  
we met two Christmases ago

For the same reason, names of people and places are not normally preceded by determiners the or a/an, though they can be in certain circumstances:   
  

it's nothing like the America I remember  
my brother is an Einstein at maths

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Characteristics of Nouns

Characteristics of Nouns

Many nouns can be recognised by their endings. Typical noun endings include:  

  

-er/-or	actor, painter, plumber, writer
-ism	criticism, egotism, magnetism, vandalism
-ist	artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist
-ment	arrangement, development, establishment, government
-tion	foundation, organisation, recognition, supposition

  

Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL forms. The plural of regular nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular:  

 

Singular	Plural
car	cars
dog	dogs
house	houses

  

However, there are many irregular nouns which do not form the plural in this way:  

 

Singular	Plural
man	men
child	children
sheep	sheep

  

The distinction between singular and plural is known as NUMBER CONTRAST.  

We can recognise many nouns because they often have the, a, or anin front of them:  
  

the car  
an artist  
a surprise  
the egg  
a review

These words are called determiners, which is the next word class we will look at.  

Nouns may take an -'s ("apostrophe s") or GENITIVE MARKER to indicate possession:  
  

the boy's pen  
a spider's web  
my girlfriend's brother  
John's house

If the noun already has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker appears only as an apostrophe after the plural form:   
  

the boys' pens  
the spiders' webs  
the Browns' house

The genitive marker should not be confused with the 's form of contracted verbs, as in John's a good boy (= John is a good boy).  

Nouns often co-occur without a genitive marker between them:  
  

rally car  
table top  
cheese grater  
University entrance examination

We will look at these in more detail later, when we discuss noun phrases.  

  

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Common and Proper Nouns

Nouns which name specific people or places are known as PROPER NOUNS.   
  

John  
Mary  
London  
France

Many names consist of more than one word:   
  

John Wesley  
Queen Mary  
South Africa  
Atlantic Ocean  
Buckingham Palace

Proper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar:   
  

 January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas, Thanksgiving

All other nouns are COMMON NOUNS.   

Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not normally take plurals. However, they may do so, especially when number is being specifically referred to:  
  

there are three Davids in my class  
we met two Christmases ago

For the same reason, names of people and places are not normally preceded by determiners the or a/an, though they can be in certain circumstances:   
  

it's nothing like the America I remember  
my brother is an Einstein at maths

    

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The Ordering of Determiners

The Ordering of Determiners
Determiners occur before nouns, and they indicate the kind of reference which the nouns have. Depending on their relative position before a noun, we distinguish three classes of determiners.        Predeterminer Central Determiner Postdeterminer Noun I met all my many friends   A sentence like this is somewhat unusual, because it is rare for all three determiner slots to be filled in the same sentence. Generally, only one or two slots are filled.   Predeterminers Predeterminers specify quantity in the noun which follows them, and they are of three major types: 1. "Multiplying" expressions, including expressions ending in times:  twice my salary  double my salary  ten times my salary 2. Fractions    half my salary  one-third my salary 3. The words all and both:    all my salary  both my salaries  Predeterminers do not normally co-occur:    *all half my salary    Central Determiners The definite article the and the indefinite article a/an are the most common central determiners:    all the book  half a chapter As many of our previous examples show, the word my can also occupy the central determiner slot. This is equally true of the other possessives:    all your money  all his/her money  all our money  all their money The demonstratives, too, are central determiners:    all these problems  twice that size  four times this amount    Postdeterminers Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the postdeterminer slot:    the two children  his fourth birthday  This applies also to general ordinals:    my next project  our last meeting  your previous remark  her subsequent letter Other quantifying expressions are also postdeterminers:    my many friends  our several achievements  the few friends that I have Unlike predeterminers, postdeterminers can co-occur:    my next two projects  several other people

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Pronouns and Determiners

There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass of pronouns. Many words can be both:      Pronoun Determiner This is a very boring book This book is very boring That's an excellent film That film is excellent   As this table shows, determiners always come before a noun, but pronouns are more independent than this. They function in much the same way as nouns, and they can be replaced by nouns in the sentences above:     This is a very boring book ~Ivanhoe is a very boring book That's an excellent film ~Witness is an excellent film   On the other hand, when these words are determiners, they cannot be replaced by nouns:     This book is very boring ~*Ivanhoe book is very boring That film is excellent ~*Witness film is excellent   The personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc) cannot be determiners. This is also true of the possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, andtheirs). However, these pronouns do have corresponding forms which are determiners:     Possessive Pronoun Determiner The white car is mine My car is white Yours is the blue coat Your coat is blue The car in the garage is his/hers  His/her car is in the garage David's house is big, but ours is bigger Our house is bigger than David's Theirs is the house on the left Their house is on the left   The definite and the indefinite articles can never be pronouns. They are always determiners.

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Numerals and Determiners

Numerals and Determiners

Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals express quantity:  
 

one book 
two books 
twenty books

In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence:  
 

first impressions 
second chance 
third prize

The subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related to numbers (as first is related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called general ordinals, and they include last, latter,next, previous, and subsequent. These words also function as determiners:  
 

next week 
last orders 
previous engagement 
subsequent developments

 When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a subclass of nouns. And like nouns, they can take determiners:  
 

the two of us 
the first of many

They can even have numerals as determiners before them:  
 

five twos are ten

In this example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner fivebefore it.  

    

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Types of Verbs

Before you begin the verb tense lessons, it is extremely important to understand that NOT all English verbs are the same. English verbs are divided into three groups: Normal Verbs, Non-Continuous Verbs, and Mixed Verbs.

Group I Normal Verbs

Most verbs are "Normal Verbs." These verbs are usually physical actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all tenses.

Normal Verbs

to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch, etc.

Examples:

• I eat dinner every day.
• I am eating dinner now.

Group II Non-Continuous Verbs

The second group, called "Non-Continuous Verbs," is smaller. These verbs are usually things you cannot see somebody doing. These verbs are rarely used in continuous tenses. They include:

Abstract Verbs

to be, to want, to cost, to seem, to need, to care, to contain, to owe, to exist...

Possession Verbs

to possess, to own, to belong...

Emotion Verbs

to like, to love, to hate, to dislike, to fear, to envy, to mind...

Examples:

• He is needing help now. Not Correct
• He needs help now. Correct

• He is wanting a drink now. Not Correct
• He wants a drink now. Correct

Group III Mixed Verbs

The third group, called "Mixed Verbs," is the smallest group. These verbs have more than one meaning. In a way, each meaning is a unique verb. Some meanings behave like "Non-Continuous Verbs," while other meanings behave like "Normal Verbs."

Mixed Verbs

to appear, to feel, to have, to hear, to look, to see, to weigh...

List of Mixed Verbs with Examples and Definitions:

to appear:

Donna appears confused. Non-Continuous Verb
Donna seems confused.
My favorite singer is appearing at the jazz club tonight. Normal Verb
My favorite singer is giving a performance at the jazz club tonight.

to have:

I have a dollar now. Non-Continuous Verb
I possess a dollar.
I am having fun now. Normal Verb
I am experiencing fun now.

to hear:

She hears the music. Non-Continuous Verb
She hears the music with her ears.
She is hearing voices. Normal Verb
She hears something others cannot hear. She is hearing voices in her mind.

to look:

Nancy looks tired. Non-Continuous Verb
She seems tired.
Farah is looking at the pictures. Normal Verb
She is looking with her eyes.

to miss:

John misses Sally. Non-Continuous Verb
He is sad because she is not there.
Debbie is missing her favorite TV program. Normal Verb
She is not there to see her favorite program.

to see:

I see her. Non-Continuous Verb
I see her with my eyes.
I am seeing the doctor. Normal Verb
I am visiting or consulting with a doctor. (Also used with dentist and lawyer.)
I am seeing her. Normal Verb
I am having a relationship with her.
He is seeing ghosts at night. Normal Verb
He sees something others cannot see. For example ghosts, aura, a vision of the future, etc.

to smell:

The coffee smells good. Non-Continuous Verb
The coffee has a good smell.
I am smelling the flowers. Normal Verb
I am sniffing the flowers to see what their smell is like.

to taste:

The coffee tastes good. Non-Continuous Verb
The coffee has a good taste.
I am tasting the cake. Normal Verb
I am trying the cake to see what it tastes like.

to think:

He thinks the test is easy. Non-Continuous Verb
He considers the test to be easy.
She is thinking about the question. Normal Verb
She is pondering the question, going over it in her mind.

to weigh:

The table weighs a lot. Non-Continuous Verb
The table is heavy.
She is weighing herself. Normal Verb
She is determining her weight.

Some Verbs Can Be Especially Confusing:

to be:

Joe is American. Non-Continuous Verb
Joe is an American citizen.
Joe is being very American. Normal Verb
Joe is behaving like a stereotypical American.
Joe is being very rude. Normal Verb
Joe is behaving very rudely. Usually he is not rude.
Joe is being very formal. Normal Verb
Joe is behaving very formally. Usually he is not formal.

NOTICE: Only rarely is "to be" used in a continuous form. This is most commonly done when a person is temporarily behaving badly or stereotypically. It can also be used when someone's behavior is noticeably different.
to feel:

The massage feels great. Non-Continuous Verb
The massage has a pleasing feeling.
I don't feel well today. Sometimes used as Non-Continuous Verb
I am a little sick.
I am not feeling well today. Sometimes used as Normal Verb
I am a little sick.

NOTICE: The second meaning of "feel" is very flexible and there is no real difference in meaning between "I don't feel well today" and "I am not feeling well today."

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Verb Tense Tutorial

Verb tenses are tools that English speakers use to express time in their language. You may find that many English tenses do not have direct translations in your language. That is not a problem. By studying this verb tense tutorial, you will learn to think like a native English speaker. If you prefer to use the verb tense pages as a reference only and do not want to complete the tutorial,

The tutorial should be completed as follows:

1. Read this introduction page.
2. Prepare for the exercises by reading: Types of Verbs, Active vs. Passive, and the verb tense descriptions that you want to practice.
3. Complete the exercises below. After each exercise, we have listed the tenses covered. Just click on the name of a tense to learn more about its use.

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